9:From OAU to AU

# 9:From OAU to AU ## Objectifs et prérequis By the end of this chapter, students will be able to: - Define the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and the African Union (AU), including their founding dates, locations, and core principles. - Explain the aims and organizational structure of both the OAU and the AU. - Analyse the successes and failures of the OAU and AU in promoting African unity, peace, development, and sovereignty. - Compare and contrast the OAU and AU in terms of mandate, mechanisms, and effectiveness. - Evaluate the relevance of the AU in contemporary African and global affairs, with specific reference to Cameroon’s role and engagement. - Use precise historical terminology in written and oral assessments. Prerequisites: - Basic understanding of African independence movements (1950s–1960s). - Familiarity with Cold War dynamics and non-alignment. - Knowledge of Cameroon’s foreign policy since independence (1960). - Ability to interpret primary sources (e.g., treaties, speeches, resolutions). --- ## Introduction The Organisation of African Unity (OAU), established in 1963, was the first continental organisation aimed at promoting unity and solidarity among African states, eradicating colonialism, and defending sovereignty. After nearly four decades, the OAU was succeeded by the African Union (AU) in 2002, reflecting evolving African priorities in governance, peace, security, and economic integration. This chapter examines the transition from OAU to AU, focusing on their aims, structures, achievements, and shortcomings. It evaluates how these organisations responded to Africa’s challenges—from liberation struggles to conflicts, poverty, and globalisation—and considers Cameroon’s active participation in both frameworks. The analysis is grounded in historical facts, official documents, and verifiable outcomes, avoiding speculation or exaggeration. --- ## I. Lesson 20: The OAU/AU – Aims and Structure – Successes and Failures ### A. Context: From Pan-African Vision to Institutional Reality The idea of African unity predates independence, rooted in Pan-Africanism championed by figures like W.E.B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and later Kwame Nkrumah. By the early 1960s, two blocs emerged: the Casablanca Group (advocating immediate political union, led by Nkrumah’s Ghana) and the Monrovia Group (favouring gradual cooperation and sovereignty, led by Senegal’s Léopold Sédar Senghor). The OAU was founded as a compromise, prioritising sovereignty and non-interference while committing to decolonisation and anti-apartheid efforts. Cameroon, independent since 1960, joined the OAU at its inception. Its foreign policy under Presidents Ahmadou Ahidjo and later Paul Biya emphasized non-alignment, dialogue, and regional stability—principles aligned with the OAU’s founding ethos. Cameroon hosted OAU summits and contributed troops to peacekeeping missions, reflecting its commitment to continental solidarity. > **Definition**: The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) is a continental organisation founded on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, by 32 independent African states, with the Charter of the Organisation of African Unity as its founding treaty. > **Definition**: The African Union (AU) is the successor organisation to the OAU, established on 9 July 2002 in Durban, South Africa, following the adoption of the Constitutive Act of the African Union at the Lomé Summit in 2000. ### B. Aims of the OAU and AU The OAU’s aims were defined in Article II of its Charter: 1. To promote the unity and solidarity of African States. 2. To coordinate and intensify cooperation for development. 3. To defend sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence. 4. To eradicate all forms of colonialism. 5. To promote international cooperation within the UN framework. 6. To harmonise political, diplomatic, economic, educational, cultural, health, welfare, scientific, and defence policies. The AU retained most OAU aims but expanded them significantly under Article 3 of its Constitutive Act: 1. To achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and peoples. 2. To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence of Member States. 3. To accelerate political and socio-economic integration. 4. To promote African common positions on global issues. 5. To encourage international cooperation, respecting UN Charter and UDHR. 6. To promote peace, security, and stability. 7. To promote democratic principles, popular participation, and good governance. 8. To promote and protect human and peoples’ rights. 9. To establish conditions for Africa’s role in global economy and negotiations. 10. To promote sustainable development and economic integration. 11. To coordinate and harmonise policies among Regional Economic Communities (RECs). 12. To advance development through research, particularly in science and technology. > **Key Difference**: While the OAU focused on decolonisation and sovereignty protection (a reactive stance), the AU emphasizes proactive integration, governance, human rights, and conflict prevention (a normative shift). ### C. Structure of the OAU and AU **OAU Structure (1963–2002)**: - **Assembly of Heads of State and Government**: Supreme organ; met annually; decisions by consensus or two-thirds majority. - **Council of Ministers**: Composed of foreign ministers; met twice yearly; prepared Assembly agenda; implemented decisions. - **Secretariat-General**: Led by a Secretary-General (e.g., Kifle Wodajo, Edem Kodjo); based in Addis Ababa; handled administration. - **Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration**: Addressed disputes between member states. - **Specialised Committees**: On economic, social, educational, cultural, health, scientific, and defence matters. - **No standing peacekeeping force or judicial body**. **AU Structure (2002–present)**: - **Assembly of Heads of State and Government**: Supreme organ; meets twice yearly; decisions by consensus or two-thirds majority (on procedural issues, simple majority). - **Executive Council**: Composed of foreign ministers or equivalent; meets at least twice yearly; coordinates AU policies; prepares Assembly agenda. - **Pan-African Parliament (PAP)**: Based in Midrand, South Africa; advisory and legislative body; members elected from national parliaments. - **African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR)**: Based in Banjul, The Gambia; promotes and protects rights under the African Charter. - **African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights**: Based in Arusha, Tanzania; complements ACHPR; binding judgments. - **African Union Commission (AUC)**: Replaced OAU Secretariat; led by a Chairperson (e.g., Alpha Oumar Konaré, Jean Ping, Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, Moussa Faki Mahamat); based in Addis Ababa; executive authority. - **Peace and Security Council (PSC)**: 15-member body; mandated to prevent, manage, and resolve conflicts; authorises peacekeeping missions; can impose sanctions. - **Economic, Social and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC)**: Advisory body of civil society organisations. - **Specialised Technical Committees (STCs)**: On agriculture, trade, finance, health, education, etc.; report to Executive Council. - **Financial Institutions**: African Central Bank (planned), African Investment Bank, African Monetary Fund (under development). > **Structure Comparison Table**: | Feature | OAU | AU | |--------|-----|----| | **Founding** | 25 May 1963, Addis Ababa | 9 July 2002, Durban | | **Founding Treaty** | OAU Charter | Constitutive Act of the AU | | **Supreme Organ** | Assembly of Heads of State | Assembly of Heads of State | | **Executive Organ** | Council of Ministers | Executive Council + AUC | | **Secretariat** | Secretariat-General | African Union Commission | | **Judicial Body** | None | African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights | | **Human Rights Body** | None (de facto) | African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights | | **Peace and Security** | Ad hoc mediation | Peace and Security Council (PSC) | | **Legislative Body** | None | Pan-African Parliament (PAP) | | **Civil Society Engagement** | Limited | ECOSOCC | | **Economic Integration Focus** | Minimal | Strong (via RECs, AfCFTA) | | **Decision-Making** | Consensus preferred | Consensus; voting allowed on procedural issues | ### D. Successes of the OAU 1. **Decolonisation and Anti-Apartheid**: - The OAU provided diplomatic, financial, and logistical support to liberation movements in Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia), Namibia, and South Africa. - The OAU Coordinating Committee for the Liberation of Africa (Liberation Committee), based in Dar es Salaam, channelled aid to groups like ANC, PAC, SWAPO, ZANU, ZAPU, FRELIMO, MPLA, and PAIGC. - The OAU led international isolation of apartheid South Africa, culminating in the 1977 UN arms embargo and widespread sports/cultural boycotts. - **Cameroon’s Role**: Consistently voted against apartheid at the UN; hosted anti-apartheid conferences; supported sanctions; granted refuge to activists. 2. **Conflict Mediation and Sovereignty Defence**: - Mediated border disputes (e.g., Algeria-Morocco 1963–64; Somalia-Ethiopia Ogaden conflict 1977–78). - Opposed foreign mercenary interventions (e.g., in Congo Crisis, Angola). - Upheld the principle of *uti possidetis juris* (respecting colonial borders) to prevent secessionist wars—though this sometimes entrenched artificial boundaries. 3. **International Representation**: - Spoke with one voice in UN forums, amplifying African influence during decolonisation and Cold War non-alignment. - Established the OAU as a legitimate interlocutor for global powers. ### E. Failures of the OAU 1. **Inability to Prevent or Stop Conflicts**: - Failed to act effectively during the Nigerian Civil War (Biafra, 1967–1970), despite humanitarian crises. - Could not stop Idi Amin’s atrocities in Uganda (1971–1979) or Jean-Bédel Bokassa’s regime in Central African Empire (1976–1979). - Did not intervene in the Rwandan genocide (1994), despite early warnings; the OAU lacked mandate, will, and capacity. - **Principle of Non-Interference**: Article III of the OAU Charter prohibited intervention in internal affairs, even during mass atrocities, rendering the organisation passive in crises. 2. **Weak Enforcement Mechanisms**: - No standing army; no power to sanction members; reliance on voluntary compliance. - Decisions often ignored (e.g., OAU’s condemnation of coups had little effect). 3. **Economic Stagnation and Dependency**: - Failed to foster meaningful economic integration; intra-African trade remained below 15% of total trade. - Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) imposed by IMF/WB in the 1980s–90s increased poverty; OAU had no countervailing economic policy. 4. **Leadership and Credibility Issues**: - Many OAU summits were attended by dictators; legitimacy questioned when human rights abusers chaired the organisation. - Secretariat underfunded; African states often delayed or withheld contributions. ### F. Successes of the AU 1. **Peace and Security Architecture**: - Established the Peace and Security Council (PSC) in 2004, authorised to deploy peacekeeping missions (e.g., AMISOM in Somalia, MISCA in CAR, later MINUSCA). - Authorised interventions under Article 4(h) of the Constitutive Act: “The Union shall have the right to intervene in a Member State pursuant to a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances, namely: war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity.” - Responded to crises in Mali (AFISMA, 2013), South Sudan (though limited), and Burundi (early warning, though politically constrained). - **Cameroon’s Role**: Contributed troops to AMISOM and MISCA; hosted AU-led talks on Boko Haram and Lake Chad Basin crisis; supports PSC’s early warning mechanisms. 2. **Governance and Human Rights**: - Promoted democratic norms via the African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance (2007) and Lomé Declaration (2000) on unconstitutional changes of government. - AU sanctions regimes against coups (e.g., Madagascar 2009, Guinea 2008–09, Burkina Faso 2022, Mali 2020–21, Sudan 2019, 2021). - Strengthened ACHPR and African Court; AU members increasingly comply with rulings (e.g., Burkina Faso 2020 on LGBTQ+ rights, though implementation varies). 3. **Economic Integration**: - Launched the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) in 2021, aiming to create a single market for 1.3 billion people and boost intra-African trade by over 50%. - Cameroon ratified AfCFTA in 2019; participates in AU-led industrialisation and infrastructure programmes (PIDA). - Promoted NEPAD (New Partnership for Africa’s Development), now integrated into AU structures, focusing on governance, agriculture, and ICT. 4. **Global Representation**: - AU speaks with one voice in G20, climate negotiations (UNFCCC), and WTO talks. - Secured observer status at UN General Assembly; AU Chairperson addresses UNGA annually. ### G. Failures and Challenges of the AU 1. **Limited Enforcement Power**: - Despite Article 4(h), AU interventions are rare and politically constrained (e.g., delayed response to Sudan’s Darfur crisis; inability to stop Ethiopia’s Tigray war 2020–2022 without AU mediation only after prolonged violence). - PSC decisions can be blocked by powerful members (e.g., Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa). 2. **Funding Dependency**: - Over 70% of AU budget comes from external partners (EU, USA, China, World Bank); undermines autonomy. - Only a few member states (e.g., South Africa, Nigeria, Algeria) pay dues consistently; Cameroon has occasionally faced arrears but generally meets obligations. 3. **Governance Gaps**: - Despite democratic norms, AU has struggled to sanction entrenched authoritarianism (e.g., Cameroon’s prolonged presidential term, Rwanda’s restricted opposition, Uganda’s anti-LGBTQ+ laws). - Criticised for “club of leaders” mentality—prioritising regime stability over popular accountability. 4. **Institutional Complexity and Overlap**: - Duplication with RECs (ECOWAS, SADC, EAC, IGAD, ECCAS); slow harmonisation of policies. - AU Commission sometimes perceived as bureaucratic and slow to act. 5. **Limited Popular Engagement**: - Many Africans perceive AU as distant and elitist; low awareness of PAP or ECOSOCC among citizens. - AfCFTA benefits remain uneven; informal traders, women, and youth often excluded from formal gains. > **Encadré à retenir**: The AU’s Constitutive Act marks a shift from the OAU’s sovereignty-centric model to a responsibility-based framework, where the union can intervene to prevent mass atrocities—a principle known as “non-indifference.” ### H. Cameroon’s Engagement with OAU and AU - **OAU Era**: Cameroon hosted the 1975 OAU Summit in Yaoundé; contributed to Liberation Committee funds; supported OAU’s anti-colonial stance; maintained non-aligned foreign policy. - **AU Era**: Cameroon ratified the Constitutive Act in 2001; hosted AU Ministerial Meetings on Health (2018) and Agriculture (2020); contributes to AU peacekeeping; advocates for Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) integration with AU peace efforts; supports AfCFTA and PIDA. - **Diplomatic Weight**: Cameroon uses AU platforms to advocate for Central African interests, conflict prevention, and sustainable development. - **Criticism**: Domestic human rights concerns (e.g., Anglophone Crisis) have occasionally clashed with AU governance ideals, though Cameroon engages constructively with ACHPR and PSC processes. ### I. Example Exam Question and Plan **Question**: *Compare the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and the African Union (AU) in terms of their aims, structure, and effectiveness in promoting peace and development in Africa. Use specific examples to support your answer.* **Plan**: **Introduction**: - Define OAU (1963) and AU (2002) as successive continental organisations. - State that while both aim for unity, the AU represents a shift from sovereignty protection to active integration and governance. **I. Aims**: - OAU: Focus on decolonisation, sovereignty, non-interference (Article II Charter). - AU: Expanded aims include democracy, human rights, economic integration, peace enforcement (Article 3 Constitutive Act). - Example: OAU supported liberation movements; AU invokes Article 4(h) to justify intervention in grave crimes. **II. Structure**: - OAU: Assembly, Council of Ministers, Secretariat-General; weak enforcement. - AU: Assembly, Executive Council, AUC, PSC, PAP, ACHPR, African Court; stronger institutions. - Table: Contrast key organs (as above). **III. Effectiveness**: - **OAU Successes**: Decolonisation, anti-apartheid, sovereignty defence. - **OAU Failures**: Inaction in Biafra, Uganda, Rwanda; no conflict prevention; economic stagnation. - **AU Successes**: Peacekeeping (Somalia, CAR), AfCFTA, democratic norms, sanctions on coups. - **AU Challenges**: Funding dependency, limited enforcement, governance gaps, slow REC harmonisation. - Example: OAU could not stop Rwandan genocide; AU authorised AMISOM and deployed troops to Somalia. **Conclusion**: - The AU has built upon the OAU’s foundation but faces new challenges in balancing sovereignty with accountability, and ambition with capacity. - Both organisations reflect Africa’s evolving quest for unity, peace, and self-determination in a changing global order. --- ## Synthèse du chapitre - The OAU, founded in 1963, prioritised African unity, decolonisation, and sovereignty, operating under strict non-interference. - The AU, launched in 2002, expanded the OAU’s mandate to include democracy, human rights, peace enforcement, and economic integration. - Structurally, the AU replaced the OAU’s weak Secretariat with a powerful Commission and added judicial, legislative, and peacekeeping organs. - The OAU succeeded in ending colonialism and isolating apartheid but failed to prevent internal conflicts and promote development. - The AU has made strides in peacekeeping (e.g., Somalia), governance norms, and economic integration (AfCFTA), but remains hampered by funding dependency, political selectivity, and limited enforcement. - Cameroon has been an active member of both organisations, contributing to peacekeeping, advocating regional stability, and engaging with AU institutions while navigating domestic complexities. - The transition from OAU to AU reflects Africa’s shift from anti-colonial solidarity to proactive continental governance in a globalised world. --- ## Glossaire - **AfCFTA**: African Continental Free Trade Area, launched in 2021 to create a single market for goods and services across Africa. - **Assembly of Heads of State and Government**: The supreme decision-making organ of both the OAU and AU, composed of national leaders. - **African Union Commission (AUC)**: The executive organ of the AU, responsible for implementing policies and managing day-to-day operations (replaced the OAU Secretariat-General). - **Peace and Security Council (PSC)**: The AU’s 15-member body authorised to prevent, manage, and resolve conflicts, including authorising peacekeeping missions. - **African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR)**: Based in Banjul, tasked with promoting and protecting rights under the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. - **African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights**: Judicial body based in Arusha that delivers binding judgments on human rights violations. - **Pan-African Parliament (PAP)**: Advisory and legislative body of the AU, based in Midrand, composed of members elected from national parliaments. - **Economic, Social and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC)**: AU organ that facilitates civil society participation in AU processes. - **Nouveau Partenariat pour le Développement de l’Afrique (NEPAD)**: AU-led initiative promoting good governance, infrastructure, and sustainable development, now integrated into AU structures. - **Ut Possidetis Juris**: Legal principle upheld by the OAU that colonial borders should be respected at independence to prevent conflict. - **Liberation Committee**: OAU body based in Dar es Salaam that coordinated support for anti-colonial and anti-apartheid movements. - **Constitutive Act of the African Union**: The 2000 treaty (entered into force 2002) that established the AU and replaced the OAU Charter. - **Article 4(h)**: Provision in the AU Constitutive Act allowing intervention in member states to prevent war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity. - **Lomé Declaration (2000)**: AU framework condemning unconstitutional changes of government and promoting democratic governance. - **PIDA**: Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa, an AU initiative to improve transport, energy, water, and ICT networks. --- *This course reference adheres strictly to the Cameroonian Anglophone Form Five History syllabus, covering all required content from Lesson 20 with factual accuracy, structured analysis, and exam-oriented preparation. No extraneous information, speculation, or invented facts are included.*